MTT 010 Solved Guess Paper 2026 for Anuvad Siddhant (Translation Theories), IGNOU Master of Arts (Translation Studies) MATS

The nature and areas of translation

Question: Discuss the nature and areas of translation.

Nature of translation

Translation originated in man's attempt to communicate with members of another linguistic community.

Translation is as old as human civilisation. There are different views about its nature. They can be put into four categories: art, science, craft and re-creation.

1. Translation is a science. Translation follows a clear method. Observation, testing, classification, analysis and comparison help the translator. Nida called it a science in his book 'Toward a Science of Translating'. Machine translation also shows the role of science.
2. Translation as an art. Different translators translate the same text in different ways. This shows personal skill. In literary translation, the beauty and taste of the original must reach the new language.
3. Translation as a craft. Craft means skill that comes from training and practice. Newmark calls translation a craft. When the text is factual, like science, law or office work, translation works like a craft.
4. Translation is re-creation. The word comes from 'Anu' + 'Vad' and means re-statement. When the translator creates the same text again in another language, it is re-creation. But he cannot add, leave out or change anything in the original.

Scope and areas of translation

1. Global village. Translation brings two languages and cultures close. Bodies like UNO, UNICEF and WHO work on the strength of translation, and the media brings world news to people through it.
2. World literature. Writers like Kalidas, Shakespeare, Goethe, Tagore and Premchand belong to the whole world because their work now reaches many languages quickly.
3. National integration. India has 1652 languages, and 22 have constitutional recognition. The same Ramkatha was written by Valmiki, Tulsidas, Kritivas, Kamban and Eknath, which shows one shared feeling.
4. Information revolution. Translation is needed in education, science, mass media, trade, religion and tourism. TV, radio and the internet have made translation work grow quickly.

Conclusion: Translation is an art, a science, a craft and a re-creation at the same time. Its scope is very wide. It connects cultures, builds world literature and keeps a multilingual country like India united.

The modern western theories of translation

Question: Critically examine the modern western theories of translation.

To translate is to change into another language preserving the sense. (Samuel Johnson)

Western scholars could not make one universal rule for translation. But on the basis of all the thinkers, seven general theories can be marked.

1. Structural theory. It comes from the study of language structure. Catford and Chomsky gave importance to structure. Sounds, morphemes, grammar and words are studied level by level. It is useful for training translators.
2. Semantic theory. It focuses on meaning. The book 'Meaning of Meaning' started this discussion. Some scholars saw translation as taking the soul (meaning) out of one body and putting it in another.
3. Principle of equivalence. Nida and Catford based translation on equivalence: literal, sense for sense (idioms), genre to genre (poetry into poetry) and functional (finding a matching symbol, like for 'owl').
4. Theory of relativity. Every language sees the world in its own way. English and Hindi divide the colour spectrum into seven colours, but a Nigerian language uses only three. So translation is often substitution, not transfer.
5. Theory of interpretation. Roman Jakobson and James Holmes see translation as interpretation. Nida says every translation has some interpretation, which is why two translators give two different versions.
6. Integration of cultural contexts. Every language has its own culture, so translation is a transfer of cultures. Malinowski calls translation the integration of cultural contexts.
7. Principle of recoding. The source text is first decoded (its meaning is taken out) and then recoded in the target language. Nida also contributed to this theory.

Critical view: each theory explains only one side of translation. Structure, meaning, equivalence, culture and interpretation together give a broad frame. No single theory is enough on its own.

Conclusion: Modern western theories grew from linguistics and later from culture. Together they give a complete picture of translation.

The role of translation in the expansion of Buddhist philosophy

Question: Underline the role of translation in the expansion of Buddhist philosophy.

The expansion of this philosophy has developed a new language, has given a new dictionary, has given a new philosophy, and has also influenced literature and arts.

Buddha did not give any theory of translation. But he told his followers to put his teachings in their own language, as recorded in the Kulavanga. As Buddhism spread outside India, translation became necessary.

Three phases of Buddhist philosophy

1. Hinayana. Teachings were first put together in Pali. Buddhism spread to Lanka, Cambodia and Myanmar, and translation began in their languages.
2. Mahayana. It began with Nagarjuna. The Bodhisattva became important. Mahayana grew in China and reached Japan through China.
3. Vigyanvad and Yogachar. Dinnag and Dharmakirti were its main teachers.

Buddhism moved from one language family to another, and it was hard to find one person who knew both languages well. So group translation began.

Translation in China

1. First phase (195 BC to 265 AD). Foreign monks explained texts orally, and Chinese helpers wrote them down. Taoist words were used for Buddhist ideas. Dharmarakshasa's Lotus Sutra was very popular.
2. Second phase (265 AD to 589 AD). The source text was now written before translation. Tao An named five weaknesses of translators and wanted free translation. Kumarajiva's state-supported centres made translation creative.
3. Third phase (589 AD to 1100 AD). Principles were accepted. Three problems were seen: different nature of languages, the need to know the context, and old customs in a new society.

Tibet: no text was done by one person. An Indian scholar, a Tibetan translator and a reviser worked together. Yang Shui saw translation as a charity, with the state as the first donor and the translator as the second.

Conclusion: Translation carried Buddhism from India to Lanka, China, Japan and Tibet. It gave new languages, dictionaries and methods like group translation.

George Steiner and the stages of Hermeneutic Motion

Question: Critically examine the translation views of George Steiner and describe the stages of his theory.

Transfer of meaning is fourfold. (George Steiner)

George Steiner's 'After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation' (1975) is a turning point in translation studies. He gave the theory of Hermeneutic Motion, which can be called the explanatory method. The word comes from the Greek 'hermeneuein', to interpret, and its use can be traced to Schleiermacher and Dilthey.

Four stages of Hermeneutic Motion

1. Trust. The translator believes the text has meaning and that it can be expressed in another language. This trust is not final; doubt comes, and he must keep testing it.
2. Aggression (penetration). The translator breaks the code, analyses the text and removes its outer layers to reach the inner meaning, as if conquering a fort.
3. Incorporation (embodiment). Meaning and form are brought into the translator's own language. This import changes the native structure, and at some point the target language resists the foreign element.
4. Restitution (satisfaction). The first three stages leave the process incomplete. Restitution brings balance through reciprocity, and the translator feels the satisfaction of giving the intended meaning.

Fidelity and exchange: for Steiner, fidelity is both ethical and economic. He uses Levi-Strauss's model of exchange between words and goods; the same exchange happens between source and target language.

Conclusion: Steiner's Hermeneutic Motion describes translation in four stages: trust, aggression, incorporation and restitution. It explains translation as interpretation and balanced exchange.

Short notes: problems of translation, and the translator's visibility

Question: Write short notes on (a) Problems of translation (b) Translator's visibility.

(a) Problems of translation

The problems of translation stem at least as much from conceptual and textual differences as from language differences. (Andre Lefevere)

Cicero said word-for-word translation looks ugly, but changing words looks like leaving one's duty. Levy says leaving out a difficult part is unethical. The problems fall into three categories.

1. Linguistic. Every language has its own structure, sounds and word order, so an exact synonym for every word is impossible.
2. Socio-cultural. Cultural words, humour and sayings are hard to carry over. Words like 'Brahma', 'Maya' and 'Yoga' are kept as they are. 'Chicken hearted' is better as 'weak heart', not 'heart of a chicken'.
3. Nature of the text. Literary, technical, advertising and school texts need different handling, and the age of the reader must be kept in mind.

(b) Translator's visibility

Translation is writing, not copying.

1. Translator at the centre. The translator now takes the author's place at the centre of meaning, but cannot be arbitrary.
2. Creative writing. Translation is seen as creative writing of the original, and writer and translator are equals.
3. A link. The translator links the original text with the target reader. Sherry Simon says language is not just the everyday expression of truth.
4. Venuti's view. Lawrence Venuti shows the active and visible role of the translator, who rebuilds the original according to social and cultural concerns.

Conclusion: The translator is no longer invisible. He is now seen as a creator in his own right.