BPAC 110 Solved Guess Paper 2026 for Urban Local Governance (IGNOU BAPAH and BAFPA)

Trends of urbanisation in India, its issues and challenges

Question: Discuss the trends of urbanisation in India and bring out the major issues and challenges of urbanisation and development.

Meaning of Urbanisation

Urbanisation is generally defined as the shift from a rural society to an urban society, which is depicted as an increase in the number of people in urban areas during a particular period.

It is an outcome of socio-economic and political developments leading to urban concentration, growth of large cities, changes in land use, and transformation from a rural to a metropolitan pattern of organisation and governance.

Trends of Urbanisation in India

1. Urban population was around 3 percent at the beginning of the 19th century and rose to about 10 percent by the beginning of the 20th century.
2. From 1961 onwards there has been a dramatic rise; urban population stood at 77.5 million in 1961 and more than doubled to 109.6 million by 1981.
3. As per Census 2011, 37.71 crore people, comprising 31.16 percent of the population, live in urban areas; it is projected to grow to about 60 crore by 2031.
4. Delhi is the most urbanised with over 97 percent urban population; among major states Tamil Nadu is most urbanised (48.4 percent), followed by Kerala (47.7 percent) and Maharashtra (45.2 percent).
5. Himachal Pradesh is the least urbanised (10 percent), followed by Bihar (11.3 percent), Assam (14.1 percent) and Odisha (16.7 percent).

Major Issues and Challenges

1. Access to Water Supply: deficiency and inequality of safe drinking water persist across states, cities and localities.
2. Sanitation: in 2011, 18.6 percent of urban households had no proper latrine facility within their premises.
3. Solid and Liquid Waste Management: only 44.5 percent households had closed drainage; unsafe disposal pollutes surface and ground water.
4. Housing: the Technical Group estimated urban housing shortage at 18.78 million at the beginning of the 12th Five Year Plan.
5. Poverty: a multi-dimensional phenomenon and one of the greatest challenges before government.
6. Health Care: cities face a burden of infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases, and violence and injuries.
7. Unemployment: in August 2021 the urban unemployment rate was 9.78 percent, higher than the all-India rate.

Conclusion: Urbanisation is an irreversible determinant of economic growth, but the transition to a quasi-urban society has not matched the supply of basic services. Sustainable, inclusive urban growth through modern urban governance is the key to addressing these challenges.

Current scenario and modes of urban planning in India

Question: Examine the current scenario of urban planning in India and explain the modes of urban planning.

Meaning of Urban Planning

Urban planning involves interactions amongst the professional planners, the political system and the people; the principles of urban planning start with forecasting the population for whom the plan is prepared.

Urban Planning Process

1. Top-down approach: in the post-independence period professional planners prepared the plan and the state government approved it, as with the Delhi Master Plans of 1962, 2001 and 2021.
2. Bottom-up approach: now the preferred option, involving people at all stages; the 74th CAA, 1992 laid the foundation of multi-stakeholders' participation in urban and regional planning.

Modes of Urban Planning

In 1996 the Institute of Town Planners prepared the UDPFI guidelines; in 2015 the Ministry released the revised Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) guidelines, the updated framework for urban stakeholders. The Planning System Framework comprises four plans for the core area of planning and three for specific and investment planning.

A) Core Area of Planning

1. Perspective Plan: time frame of 20 to 30 years, developing a vision and policy framework.
2. Regional Plan: time frame of 20 years, regulated by the District Planning Committee.
3. Development Plan: time frame of 20 to 30 years with review every 5 years, under the Development Authority or Metropolitan Planning Committee.
4. Local Area Plan: time frame of 5 to 20 years, detailing the sub-city land-use plan including Town Planning Schemes and Zonal Plans.

B) Specific and Investment Planning

1. Special Purpose Plan: identifying needs of special areas, e.g. City Development Plan and City Sanitation Plan.
2. Annual Plan: the yearly plan that phases projects and budgets within the Development Plan.
3. Projects and Research: specific investment and utility projects prepared within the development framework.

Conclusion: Urban planning in India has shifted from a top-down to a participatory bottom-up approach; the URDPFI guidelines now provide an integrated planning framework covering both the urban area and its surrounding region for sustainable development.

Sources of funds and measures to augment municipal resources

Question: Describe the sources of funds and suggest necessary measures to augment the resources of municipalities.

Meaning of Municipal Finance

Most Urban Local Governments around the world have adopted a mix of instruments to finance their activities, including local taxes such as property tax, user charges, central and state grants, debt financing, land-based instruments and public-private partnerships.

Sources of Funds for ULBs

1. Tax Revenue: property tax, professional tax, entertainment tax, advertisement tax, vacant land tax and taxes on vehicles; the ULBs levy around 25 different kinds of tax instruments, of which property tax is the most important.
2. Non-Tax Revenue: user charges (consumption-related and benefit-related), municipal fees, sale and hire charges, and lease amounts.
3. Other Receipts: sundry receipts, fees, fines and forfeitures, and miscellaneous sales.
4. Assigned (Shared) Revenue: entertainment tax, surcharge on stamp duty, profession tax and motor vehicles tax collected by the state and shared with ULBs.
5. Grants-in-aid: Plan Grants through planned transfers and Non-Plan Grants to compensate for loss of income.
6. Loans: borrowed for capital works from HUDCO, LIC, State and Central Governments, Banks, PPP and Municipal Bonds.

Measures to Augment Resources

1. Strengthening Own Tax Revenues: periodic revision of tax rates, right assessment of the tax base, GIS mapping and minimising unnecessary exemptions on property tax.
2. Strengthening Non-tax Revenues: revising user charges periodically to realistic levels covering at least operation and maintenance.
3. Reforms in Devolution: formula-based inter-governmental transfers to ensure objectivity, transparency and predictability.
4. Improving Municipal Finance: creating a Revenue Mobilisation Incentive Fund (RMIF) and deploying debt capital for infrastructure.
5. Financial Management Reforms: adopting the Double Entry Accounting System and performance-linked budgeting.
6. Unlocking Land Value: land monetisation through land-based instruments such as Vacant Land Tax, Development Charges, Betterment Charges and Transferable Development Rights.

Conclusion: The ULBs in India have always been under fiscal stress; strengthening own revenues, rationalising user charges, reforming devolution and unlocking land value are essential to make municipalities financially self-reliant.

Implementation of Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban)

Question: Examine the implementation of the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) Mission in addressing the problem of shortage of houses in urban areas.

Meaning of PMAY (Urban)

PMAY (Urban) is a flagship Mission of the Government of India, launched on June 25, 2015 and implemented by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, supporting the construction of houses up to 30 square metres carpet area with basic civic infrastructure.

Objectives and Coverage

The Mission aims to provide a pucca house in urban areas to eligible households and addresses the housing shortage among Economically Weaker Section (EWS), Low Income Group (LIG) and Middle Income Group (MIG) categories, including slum dwellers. Being demand-driven, the shortage is assessed by States and UTs.

Four Verticals

1. In-situ Slum Redevelopment using land as a resource.
2. Affordable Housing through Credit Linked Subsidy, with interest subsidy of 6.5 percent for EWS and LIG, and 4 and 3 percent for MIG-I and MIG-II.
3. Affordable Housing in Partnership involving the private sector, with 35 percent of units for weaker sections.
4. Beneficiary-led Individual House Construction with provision for basic civic services.

Implementation Mechanism

1. State Level Nodal Agencies (SLNAs), Urban Local Bodies, Central Nodal Agencies and Primary Lending Institutions act as the important pillars of the Yojana.
2. A house is deemed completed when it has water supply, kitchen, toilet and electricity.
3. It promotes women's empowerment by providing house ownership in the name of a female member or in joint name, with preference to persons with disabilities, SC/ST/OBC, minorities and transgender persons.

Conclusion: By ensuring a pucca house with basic amenities to the urban poor, PMAY (Urban) directly addresses housing shortage while promoting dignified living, security and women's empowerment in urban India.

Challenges before Urban Local Government and Second ARC recommendations

Question: The Urban Local Government is facing many challenges which affect its performance. Comment, and explain the major recommendations of the Second Administrative Reforms Commission to strengthen the local bodies.

Meaning of Urban Governance

The change in the role of the government from that of a provider to a facilitator of services has to be accomplished, ensuring sustainability and optimum utilisation of the available resources.

Challenges before Urban Local Government

1. Most cities do not have 24x7 water supply, and nearly 74 percent of households connected to piped supply need network upgradation.
2. The sanitation system is poor, with sewage treatment capacity of only about 30 percent as per the Central Pollution Control Board.
3. Solid Waste Management is weak, with collection performance ranging only from 50 to 75 percent and a shortage of trained staff.
4. Floods, traffic jams, accumulated roadside waste and pollution of water, air and land create a grim picture of urban governance.
5. Poor service delivery worsens the quality of life and reflects under-utilisation of available resources.

Major Recommendations of the Second ARC

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission submitted its report on Local Governance in 2007 (Sixth Report). Its major recommendations are:

1. Devolution of Powers and Functions: clear allocation of responsibilities, devolving school education, public health, traffic management, urban environment and land management to ULBs.
2. Creating a Responsive Institutional Framework: the local government to be responsible for civic amenities, with state utilities accountable to the ULB within its boundaries.
3. Capacity Building for Self-Governance: organisation building and skill upgradation, with special programmes for women members.
4. Accountability and Transparency in local body functioning.
5. Creation of an Ombudsman for local bodies.
6. Performance Evaluation of local governments.

Conclusion: Urban Local Governments face acute service-delivery and capacity challenges; the Second ARC's recommendations on devolution, responsive institutions, capacity building and accountability provide a roadmap to strengthen these grassroots democratic units.